Friday, August 24, 2012
Fiber Optic Cable OTDR Basics
Fiber optic communication systems have become more of a challenge for network operators to strategically and promptly keep them running at top performance in order to meet intense demands for reliable services. Many operators will go through a rigorous fiber optic training course. As the fiber optic communication systems evolve, there become newer and more complex parameters to monitor, more links to install and maintain, and more expected disruptions to track down. A new function in the primary test tool for fiber optic cable plants is the Optical Time Domain Reflectometer, or OTDR. The OTDR is an instrument that uses the inner back scattering properties of an optical fiber to detect and categorize its condition by sending high power pulses of laser light down into the fiber and capture the light that is reflected back. This new tool is of great significance for fiber optic technicians. Fiber optic patch cables are another way to provide the correct amount of light.
Software enhancements are reshaping OTDR testing with potent new data processing capabilities that allow even the least experienced operator to analyze the fiber optics quickly and completely, and to find subtle features easily. While OTDR concepts are basically simple, precise measurements can be complicated. Reflected fiber optical power is a tiny fraction (of basically one-millionth) of transmitted pulse power that eminently varies with wavelength, cable length, fiber optic backscatter co-efficient, along with splice and connector attributes.
Measurement parameters of fiber optics under test have to be carefully selected based on mode, length and attenuation, in order to optimize fiber optic measurements with an older, manual OTDR. The optimal parameters for all fibers, in exception for the shortest optical fibers, vary in relation to the distance of the event from the instrument. The newest OTDR instruments integrate software programs that automatically detect and configure the optimum test parameters and show results in simple formats.
Most fiber optic cables require multiple OTDR measurements by using different parameters to completely and accurately characterize their property ties. These types of tests can take more time than is acceptable during a network emergency or a lengthy commissioning process. When troubleshooting the close-range resolution versus long-range visibility, several sets of waveforms must be acquired by using different OTDR settings as often as necessary. After completing the first scan by using a short-duration optical pulse, the next scan will use a longer-duration optical pulse to provide additional optical power to test further along the optical fiber.
Newer OTDR's incorporate built-in testing programs that automatically characterize the fiber optics in a sequential manner, starting from the instrument-to-fiber connection and working outward. Such programs automatically determine which parameters need to change, based on criteria like signal-to-noise-ratio, length, total loss and elapsed time. They may also increase the number of averages, change the filtering, or adjust the gain of the detection circuitry in order to optimize the test results for each specific cable segment. Many other software enhancements have been introduced to the acquisition , analysis and archiving of fiber optical test data, making the OTDR an even more valuable asset for technicians to meet the challenges of supporting fiber optic cable plants.
James Croydon, Fiber Network Engineer and Fiber Optic Patch Cables [http://www.fiber-optic-test.com] expert - focusing on Fiber Optic Tester [http://www.fiber-optic-light-source.com] and Optic Cable [http://www.fiber-cables-online.com]
How to Determine the Right Fiber Optic Network Backup Switch For Your Application
1. Questions to Consider in the Design of Your Switch.
A. How many positions does your application require?
i. Two-position and three-position switches are very common. Complex multi-position switches are also required.
B. What type of connector or port preference? The selection of connectors include ST, SC, LC, ESCON and others.
i. ST connectors use a plug and socket that is locked in place with a half-twist bayonet lock.
ii. SC connectors feature a push-pull latching system providing speedy insertion and
removal along with a positive connection.
iii. LC connectors are smaller versions of the SC connectors.
iv. ESCON connectors have two 2.55 mm ceramic ferrules and a robust strain relief design.
C. Fiber Requirement: Simplex or Duplex?
i. In configuring your backup switch, a determination on the fiber type, simplex or duplex needs to be made.
1. Simplex fiber optic cable consists of a single fiber, and is primarily used in applications that only require one-way data transmission. Simplex fiber is available in both singlemode and multimode. Simplex means the cable has only one thread of fiber optic glass inside the single core and one single outer jacket.
2. Duplex cable consists of two fibers, usually in a zipcord (side-by-side) style. Duplex multimode or single mode fiber optic cables are used for applications that require simultaneous, bidirectional data transfer. Workstations, fiber switches and servers, fiber modems, and similar hardware usually require duplex cable. Duplex fiber is available in singlemode and multimode. Duplex fiber cable can be regarded as two simplex cables having their jackets joined by a jacket material. Some duplex fiber optic cables have clips on the two fiber optic connectors at each side of the cable to combine the two connectors together.
D. Mode: Multimode or Singlemode?
i. Multimode fiber optic cable has a large diameter core that is much larger than the wavelength of light transmitted, and therefore has multiple pathways of light. Several wavelengths of light may be used in the fiber core. Multimode optical cable is most commonly used for shorter distances, such as a building or a campus. Typical multimode links have data rates of 10 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s over link lengths of up to 600 meters.
ii. Singlemode fiber optic cable has a small core and only one pathway of light. With only a single wavelength of light passing through its core, singlemode realigns the light toward the center of the core instead of simply bouncing it off the edge of the core as with multimode. The glass fiber diameter is usually 8.3 to 10 microns. Single mode fiber provides a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than multimode.
E. Switch Specifications: Wavelength, Speed, Fiber Size, Simplex, Duplex, Interface Conversion will be unique to your network. Examples of two switches with very different specs follow.
F. Technology Preference: All Optic, Optic/Electronic/Optic, No Preference?
i. All-Optic (O-O-O) - Fiber optic network switches designed with scalable all-optical, O-O-O, MEMS (Micro-Electromechanical System) technology employ control mechanisms to tilt mirrors or direct prisms in multiple directions to manage light signals without converting the signals to electrical and back to optical. This increased level of control minimizes insertion loss and keeps the features of high data rate and protocol transparency.
ii. Optic/Electronic/Optic (O-E-O) Technology - Optic/Electronic/Optic technology is both economical and reliable, however such an architecture prevents the switch from performing with the same speed as an all-optical scheme and is not transparent to network protocols used.
G. Chassis Type: Rackmount or Desktop? - This table lists a variety of switches built to fit equipment racks and desktops.
H. Security Concerns can be addressed in a variety of ways.
i. Off-line positions.
1. External Off-line Position - The block diagram of the Model 4192 Fiber Optic SC Duplex A/B/C/D/Off-Line Switch illustrates a fiber optic switch with an external off-line position. This switch enables a fiber optic device connected to the SC Duplex COMMON connector of the unit to access any of the four fiber optic networks connected to the A, B, C, or D ports, or to disconnect completely from all output ports. The switch position can be changed via a pushbutton or via a device connected to the Remote port. Applying the appropriate voltage to the designated pins of the Remote connector will cause the switch to change position.
2. External Off-Line Position with Switch Position Memory - The Model 4196 4-Way All-Optic Fiber Switch, Multimode, 62.5/125 Microns with a Fully Decoupled Off-Line Capability allows a fiber optic device connected to the unit's SC Duplex COMMON connector to access any of the four fiber optic networks connected to the A, B, C, or D ports, or to disconnect completely from all output ports. Switch position can be changed via front-panel pushbuttons or by a device connected to the rear panel Remote port. Applying appropriate voltage to designated pins of the Remote connector also changes the switch position. The Off-Line pushbutton uncouples all fiber ports from each other. The Model 4196 has Switch Position Memory. When power is lost, the Model 4196 automatically changes to the Off-Line position and decouples all fiber connection in and out of the unit. When power returns, the Model 4196 automatically reads the voltages on the Remote port and looks to the pushbutton activity to select its switch position.
3. Internal Off-Line Position with Options − The Model 6275 ST Duplex Fiber Optic 8-Position Switch with Off-Line Position and Remote Serial Control provides both an Off-Line position and a keylock to lock out the front panel pushbutton controls. The Model 6275 features both local and remote control. The Off-Line position is a valid state to preserve network and data isolation. The user can configure the switch to either maintain its position and data pathways on power failure or to revert to the Off-Line position during power failure. A key is provided to lockout the front-panel pushbutton controls.
ii. Front Panel Lockout - The Model 6293 Fiber Optic Mirror A/B/C Switch, Single Mode LC Duplex with Remote Serial Access allows sharing a fiber optic LC duplex pair connected to the COMMON port among three other sets of LC duplex pairs connected to the A, B, and C ports with local and remote access functionality. The front-panel pushbutton can be locked out using remote ASCII commands.
iii. PassWord Protection - Password protection is another method of providing network security. The Model 4185 Fiber Optic SC Duplex, Multimode Switch/Converter allows accessing two separate fiber optic 100 Base FX ports (ports A and B) from a 100 Base TX Fast Ethernet port (COMMON port). The fiber optic/twisted pair copper conversion is built in. This unit includes an RS232 serial security enhanced Supervisory Remote Port. Upon proper authentication, a terminal or computer in terminal mode connected to this port can communicate with the unit, determine its status, change the switch position as desired, and/or lock out the front panel switching capability. A modem can also be connected to this port to remotely access the switch. Access to the Supervisory Remote Port feature is password protected.
I. Power Loss − How should your switch function during a power loss?
i. Should the switch continue to pass data?
ii. If passing data during a power loss, should data pass through the last selected switch position or go to the default position?
iii. Upon power up, should the switch remain in the last position or start up in default mode?
J. Number of Channels per Chassis - Electro Standards manufactures fiber optic backup switches ranging from Single-Channel to 16-Channel Switches.
K. Multiple channel switch control: Simultaneous or Individual.
Examples of how these switches function follow:
i. Simultaneous Channel Switching:
ii. Individual Channel Switching: All channels are switched individually with the
2. Putting the Switch All Together
3. Summary - Fiber optic switches of various functions are available to add versatility, improve efficiency, and enhance scalability of data networks. They may be operated locally by pushbutton or remotely via a variety of common communication interfaces. The agility that they add to network operational performance is limited only by the innovation of the user and the design expertise of the switch product provider.
Applications include switching to backup data lines, to test equipment, to monitoring equipment, or simply switching to off-line for security. Electro Standards Laboratories is available to provide an optimum switch solution for your application.
Raymond B. Sepe, Sr., is the President of Electro Standards Laboratories, Cranston, Rhode Island. Mr. Sepe holds electrical engineering degrees from the University of Rhode Island. As the President of Electro Standards Laboratories, he has been involved with the design and manufacture of innovative network products for over 30 years, developing state-of-the-art fiber optic network backup switches, interface converters and cable assemblies.
The Secret of Maintaining Your Fiber Optic Network
Why do you need a fiber identifier and what can it do for you?
If you have ever seen a telephone company technician working on the phone jump box outside your house, you should have noticed a special handheld phone like instrument. The technician uses it to identify the incoming telephone wires by tapping onto the wires and listening for a tone. Once he finds the correct wire, he connects the wire into your house.
During fiber optic network installation, maintenance, or restoration, it is also often necessary to identify a specific fiber without disrupting live service. This battery powered instrument looks like a long handheld bar and is called fiber identifier or live fiber identifier.
How does it work?
There is a slot on the top of a fiber optic identifier. The fiber under test is inserted into the slot, then the fiber identifier performs a macro-bend on the fiber. The macro-bend makes some light leak out from the fiber and the optical sensor detects it. The detector can detect both the presence of light and the direction of light.
A fiber optic identifier can detect "no signal", "tone" or "traffic" and it also indicates the traffic direction.
The optical signal loss induced by this technique is so small, usually at 1dB level, that it doesn't cause any trouble on the live traffic.
What kind of fiber cables does it support?
Fiber optic identifiers can detect 250um bare fibers, 900um tight buffered fibers, 2.0mm fiber cables, 3.0mm fiber cables, bare fiber ribbons and jacketed fiber ribbons.
Most fiber identifiers need to change a head adapter in order to support all these kinds of fibers and cables. While some other models are cleverly designed and they don't need to change the head adapter at all. Some models only support single mode fibers and others can support both single mode and multimode fibers.
What is relative power measurement
Most high end fiber optic identifiers are equipped with a LCD display which can display the optical power detected. However, this power measurement cannot be used as a accurate absolute power measurement of the optical signal due to inconsistencies in fiber optic cables and the impact of user technique on the measurements.
But this power measurement can be used to compare power levels on different fiber links which have same type of fiber optic cable. This relative power measurement has a lot of applications as described below.
Sample applications
1. Identification of fibers
The relative power reading can be used to aid in the identification of a live optical fiber.There are several tests that can be performed to isolate the desired fiber cable from a group of fibers without taking down the link(s). Three methods that could be used include comparing relative power, inducing macrobends, and varying the optical power of the source. No single method is best or necessarily definitive. Using one or a combination of these methods may be needed to isolate the fiber.
2. Identification of high loss points
Fiber optic identifier's relative power measurement capability can be used to identify high loss point(s) in a length of fiber. By taking relative power measurements along a section of optical fiber that is suspected of having a high loss point such as a fracture or tight bend, the change in relative power point to point can be noted. If a sudden drop or increase in relative power between two points is noted, a high loss point probably exists between the two points. The user can then narrow in on the point by taking further measurements between the two points.
3. Verify optical splices and connectors
Fiber optic identifier can be used to verify fiber optic connectors and splices. This test must be performed on a lit optical fiber. The optical fiber can be carrying a signal or be illuminated using an optical test source. Attach fiber identifier to one side of the optical connector/splice. Read and record the relative optical power. Repeat the measurement on the second side of the connector/splice. Take the difference between the reading on the second side and the first side. The difference should be roughly equal to the optical attenuation of the optical connector/splice. The measurement can be taken several times and averaged to improve accuracy. If the optical fiber identifier indicates high loss, the connector/slice may be defective.
Manufactures supplying fiber optic identifiers
You can get fiber optic identifiers from Wilcom, Ideal, 3M, Fitel, Noyes and many more manufacturers. We prefer Wilcom and Fitel products since both manufacturers have very high customer satisfaction rate.
Find out even more about fiber identifiers, fiber optic identifiers and optical fiber identifier on Fiber Optics For Sale Co. web site.
The World of Fiber Optics
Principle of fiber optics is based on transmission of data by means of light. Concept of fiber optics was first conceived by Claude Chappe in 1790's. His idea for fiber optics was based on an optical telegraph concept invented by Graham Bell also tried the means to send information by the atmosphere but did not succeed. Finally, fiber optics emerged with the onset of new era based on the principle of total internal reflection which is a distinct quality of light rays.
Fiber optics emerged and grew into more advanced phase due to requirement from radio and telephone engineers. These engineers required more bandwidth for data transmission. Thus these engineers had been looking out for a medium to transmit data in more reliable and faster form rather than copper cables. They also wanted to avoid the hazards of electric shocks and interference which were a constant problem of copper cables.
Fiber optics had attracted some attention because they were analogous in theory to plastic dielectric waveguides used in certain microwave applications. Finally a technology evolved that used glass or plastic threads to transmit data. Cables involved in fiber optics contain several bundles of glass threads which are capable of transmitting data in modulated form.
With the onset of fiber optics and fiber optic cables data started to transfer faster as fiber optic cables have greater bandwidth than metal cables and are more resistant to external interference. Lighter and thinner fiber optic cables readily transfer data in digital form rather than analogue form. This technology is most useful in computer industry which now forms an integral part of telephone, radio and television industry.
Telecommunications applications of fiber optics use flexible low-loss fibers, using a single fiber per optical path. Along with the communication industry fiber optics plays an important role in medical and industrial applications also. Many medical appliances like endoscope use the principle of fiber optics. Industrial applications viz. in television industry use the principle of fiber optics to obtain flattened images in cathode ray tubes.
Fiber optics yield distortion free data transmission in digital form. The audio waves transmitted via principle of fiber optics deliver accurate signal transfer. Fiber optics is also useful in automotive and transportation industry. Traffic lights, organized and scrutinized highway traffic control, automated toll booths, etc. are some of the benefits of application of fiber options in the transportation mechanism.
Cable TV companies and Internet Service Providers equivocally find fiber optics indispensable in their industry. Fiber optics provides tamper free, high bandwidth and larger data carrying capacity to the service providers. This eventually leads to better consumer satisfaction.
Unlike copper wire system fiber optics do not use and electrical form to carry data. The use of light gives a competitive edge to fiber optics over regular data transmission options. But eventually use of fiber optics is very expensive as compared to copper cabling system.
James Croydon, Fiber Network Engineer and Fiber Optic Tester [http://www.fiber-optic-splicing.com] expert - focusing on Fiber Optic Patch Cables [http://www.fiber-cables-online.com] and Fiber Optic Cable [http://www.fiber-optic-tool.com]
Fiber Optic Cables
Each fiber optic cable guide includes a radius limiting portion that prevents fiber optic cables from being bent beyond their minimum bend radii. The fiber optic cables have clear advantages over the copper cables. There is more security, and the fiber optic cables are more reliable than any other wire available. The fiber optic cable is in the high voltage environment. Dry-band voltage of the polluted sheath's surface of the all-dielectric self-supporting fiber optic cable is analyzed in this paper.
The fiber optic cable 700, shown in FIG. The FIMT core 702 includes an inner tube 706 surrounding one or more optical fibers 708. The fiber optic cable is the main choice for high speed Internet connections and the primary material used for country to country or continent to continent Internet connections. By moving the connection type from copper to fiber optics it will allow the DisplayPort to achieve higher bandwidths which are necessary for HDTV playback and if you consider that there are a lot of games that you can play over the Internet, streaming them through the DisplayPort directly to your LCD TV might be one option the industry is going to take in the near future. The fiber optic cable can be installed easily from point to point, passing right next to major sources of EMI with no effect. Conversion from copper networks is easy with media converters, gadgets that convert most types of systems to fiber optics.
The fiber optic cable assembly includes a bundle of fiber optic fibers, a tube, a track, a plurality of fasteners and securing means. The tube has a front surface and a rear surface. The fiber optic cable transmits the photon to a second quantum dot that also happens to be sitting between two mirrors. In this case, the mirrors "catch" the photon and bounce it off the quantum dot until it finally absorbs it. The fiber optic cable has an end that is stripped. The stripped end includes a bare fiber that extends into the connector and through the ferrule.
The fiber optic cable carries multiple services throughout campus including: voice, video, cable TV, and data. In addition to having the fiber cable in place, newer fiber cable TV distribution equipment became more readily available at a reduced cost. The fiber optic cable and lens allows the instrument electronics to be kept away from the target environment where it would be subjected to higher temperatures, smoke, dust, steam or powerful electromagnetic emissions such as generated by induction heating. Both the stainless steel lens and rugged cable assembly can be replaced in the field without returning the instrument for calibration (a unique feature). The Fiber Optic Cable Blower is designed for the installation of fiber optic cables with diameters from 0.23" (5.8 mm) to 1.13" (28.7 mm) into innerduct from 0.98" (25 mm) outer diameter to 1.97" (50.0 mm) outer diameter. The correct size cable seals, feed tube and venturi must be determined for the cable being installed.
The fiber optic cable receives input from the reflection off of the internal 3/4 inch diameter sphere surface. The IS1 is ideal for portable color measurements and acts like a cosine receptor for irradiance measurements. The fiber optic cable (20) includes a light carrying center (28), a cladding (30) and a buffer (32). The cladding displacement connector (10) has surfaces (60,62) which can be used for displacing the buffer (32) and cladding (30) to expose (34) the light carrying center (28).
Fiber-optic wires carry information in the form of light . To make a fiber-optic nanowire, engineers first start with a regular fiber-optic cable. Fiber-optic cable is now being used to transport both video and audio signals for short and long distances. This is made possible by modulating a video/audio signal(s) onto a beam of coherent light, which is generated by a solid-state laser.
Fiber-optic cables are not crimped, soldered, or twisted together when they are repaired. If the cable is broken, another cable must be cut to fit between the two connectors. Fiber-optic technology is well known in telecommunications, local area networks, the CCTV security marketplace and in many Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) highway projects. Even CATV (cable) distribution to various local feed points within a residential community is now routine for fiber.
Network operators are looking to recoup the cost of the fiber-optic cable and other infrastructure pieces that make a high-speed Internet possible. They argue that the upgrades are necessary to deliver such innovations as high-definition video-on-demand and high-quality teleconferencing. Our standard fiber-optic ribbon cables provide superior tensile strength and resistance to cut-through and abrasion while maintaining flexibility. Cables are available for aerospace and other demanding applications. The fiber-optic cable did not allow that.
glass,glasses
Fiber Optic cabling is made with glass fibers. Provide very little variation in the signal they carry over long distances. Optical engineers have found that adding different additional chemicals to the basic silicon dioxide they can change the optical properties of the glass. By adding roughly 4% germanium dioxide (GeO2), for example, they can create a glass that has much less attenuation, and much 'flatter' attenuation across various frequencies of light, than silicon dioxide by itself. Although fibers can be made out of either plastic or glass, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the lower optical absorption of glass. The light transmitted through the fiber is confined due to total internal reflection within the material.
FYI, fiber optic (the core of it, not shell to cover it) is made of glass and not plastic. The fiber optic strands of glass (optic fibers) within fiber optic cables carry analog or digital signals in the form of light waves. Distance and capabilities will increase even more once the glass becomes more pure.
Remembering the headache and the brilliant white light from high SiO2 glass, Richard knew that the formula would be ultra pure SiO2. Richard also knew that Corning made high purity SiO2 powder, by oxidizing pure SiCl4 into SiO2. NEP Supershooters has adapters that work around the fiber by breaking out the glass, but this means that the camera must be powered from the closest electrical outlet or generator. It's just one more thing to go wrong if the power plug gets pulled or the generator quits. A fibre optic cable consists of a glass silica core through which light is guided. This is covered with a material with a refractive index of slightly less than the core.
The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index ) are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores. A type of cable that transmits data as light through strands of glass instead of electricity through copper . Fiber-optic cable is a wonderful thing; it can transmit almost insane amounts of data per second , and it is completely impervious to surge s, magnetic fields , lightning , and all the other EM nasties that can affect copper cable. Fiber optic data transmission uses light in glass fiber cable as a communication medium. It is ideal for spanning areas with severe interference, such as near heavy electrical equipment, welding or radio transmissions.
Fiber optics are thin filaments of glass through which light beams are transmitted. Advantages of fiber include high information carrying capacity (bandwidth), very low error rates and insensitivity to electromagnetic interference. Then, the bare glass (125 mm) is cleaned and set in place under a special laser below a custom photo mask that is set 50 mm above the cable. Once the laser performs its cycle, the assembly is now customized. Abraham Van Heel covered a bare fiber or glass or plastic with a transparent cladding of lower refractive index. This protected the total reflection surface from contamination and greatly reduced cross talk between fibers.
Fiber-optic cable consists of glass fibers, allowing for significantly higher transfer speeds compared to copper. Data are transmitted in the form of light pulses injected by a laser or an LED. The cable uses glass fibers instead of copper wires to transmit conversation and data. AT&T's old cables generally are shark- free because they don't emit much magnetism. Glass cables need to be custom-cut so that they have a nice crisp edge that doesn't scatter the light, but their plastic cousins can be trimmed on the jobsite. Still, no ordinary wire cutter will do.
From a technical standpoint, fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass or plastic rods that can transmit data signals. Fiber optic cable can send and receive in both analog and digital formats, and can carry video, voice, and internet packets. Some new cable designers will actually provide built-in bend limits to protect the glass within.
While copper wires can be spliced and mended as many times as needed, it is much harder to fix glass fiber-optic cables. And this time it's not all dependent on one market (though LCD glass is huge). We have the LCD glass, auto/diesel catalytic converter substrates, and fiber. Theoretical work showing that light loss in glass fibers could be decreased dramatically spurred experimental efforts to produce such fibers. Researchers continued exploring techniques to decrease light loss in optical fibers.
The light beam bounces off the side of the glass or plastic fibers in the cable, which are thinner than a human hair. The light does not pass through the wall of the fiber, but is reflected back in and travels along to the end of the fiber.
Feel free to visit Fiber Optics Technology [http://www.fiber-optics-tech.com] for more information about fiber optic
Wednesday, May 30, 2012
Recovering From a Truck Accident
There are approximately 251 million registered vehicles in the United States alone and in 2004 there were 198.8 million registered drivers with an estimated 6.6 million driver's licenses likely to be issued in 2007-2008, according to information obtained from programs under the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV).
In 2005, there were nearly 6.4 million auto accidents resulting in approximately 40,000 fatalities, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). In 2007, the USDOT reported that:
* There were 236,468 non-fatal large truck accidents.
* 54,961 injury-related large truck accidents.
* 80,752 injuries due to large truck accidents.
Large truck accidents account for a significant portion of vehicle accidents every year and also account for a portion of crash-related injuries and fatalities among drivers, passengers and pedestrians.
According to research conducted by the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI), fatalities caused by truck accidents are rising and have steadily risen 5.8 percent over a the previous ten-year period. Causes of Truck Accidents There are a plethora of reasons that an individual can become involved in a truck accident, but there are a list of common, reoccurring truck accident scenarios that have been identified by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA), which conducts research on highway collisions involving an array of motor vehicles.
The following are some of the primary causes for a fatality or injury because of a truck crash:
* Trucks hitting pedestrians.
* The force of the collision between a large truck and a smaller passenger vehicle/vehicles.
* Trucks hitting fixed objects.
* Loss of control (tire blow out, vehicle failure, weather conditions, etc.).
* Animal in roadway.
* Physical driver factor, including falling asleep, heart attack, etc.
Another study conducted by the FMCSA also found that truck accidents will vary based on roadway type, weight of vehicle and cargo body type. The study found that of the three main categories of roadway types (rural, urban and unknown), urban roadways (interstate, freeways, expressways, etc.) accounted for 63 percent of all large truck accidents. Additionally, weight factored into the equation of truck accidents and truck fatalities/injuries.
The study measured truck weight by single unit trucks (two axles, threes axles, etc.) and combination trucks (tractor trucks, truck pulling trailers, etc.). Of these, 62 percent of accidents were made up by combination trucks, specifically the tractor truck pulling a trailer.
Additionally, the study reported an array of truck varieties that had been in an accident:
* Van trucks, including closed van, refrigerated van and open top van.
* Dump trucks (rear dump trucks and bottom dump/hopper bottom).
* Tankers (tank-liquid, tank-dry bulk and tank-compressed gas).
* Garbage refuse trucks.
* Cement mixers.
* Pole/logging trucks.
* Auto carriers.
* Livestock carriers.
* Bobtail units (with no cargo body).
* Other category, which includes tow trucks, etc.
* Unknown category (meaning un-inspected vehicles).
Of these trucks, the van trucks accounted for 46 percent of large truck crashes with dump trucks accounting for 16 percent of accidents and flatbed trucks accounting for 15 percent.
Truck Accident Costs While the percentage of truck accidents varies each year, the UMTRI has noted that there is a steady increase of truck accident fatalities and injuries among passengers.
Accompanying this increase is the rising costs per crash. Research determining the average price for medium as well as heavy truck accidents was conducted by the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, which was paid for by USDOT.
The study found that: An average truck accident cost $91,112 in 2005.
* Crashes involving truck-tractors with two or three trailers accounted for the most costly crashes averaging $289,549 per crash.
* Truck crashes involving trucks with no trailers and straight trucks cost an average of $56,296 per crash.
* Reports have suggested that it will cost more than $3.6 million per crash for truck accidents involving a fatality.
* Whereas, truck crashes involving injury-only crashes averaged at $195,258 per crash.
While the costs of fatal and non-fatal accidents have been considered shockingly high by some, the study noted that these cost estimates excluded additional factors such as:
* mental health costs.
* roadside furniture repair costs.
* cargo delays.
* it is estimated that even those who are involved in or caring for a victim that was in a truck accident will have lost earnings.
* the value of schoolwork lost was also not factored.
Because of these exclusions, the estimated truck accident costs may even be considerable higher than estimated by the USDOT.
Seeking Assistance after a Truck Accident
It is often difficult for an individual to gauge the devastation that has just occurred after a truck collision. It is important that an individual who has suffered from a truck accident seeks medical attention immediately.
While an individual may feel no pain after an accident, their injuries may be internal and an examination by a medical professional immediately following an accident can ensure that the appropriate safety precautions are taken.
Additionally, it may be necessary for a truck accident victim to consult an experienced truck accident attorney for legal purposes, which may include a legal consultation for a potential truck accident lawsuit.
Developing a truck accident lawsuit may seem to be a drastic measure by some, but when considering the costs associated with a truck accident, whether fatal or non-fatal, it can be deemed a necessary step, one that may provide monetary compensation in return for damages following a truck collision.
To better understand the importance of a truck accident lawsuit, visit LegalView's truck accident portal. Also visit the LegalView legal library at for details on the possibility for a Levaquin recall or to learn about the latest Avandia lawsuit.
Choose From A Wide Variety Of Off Road RC Trucks To Play In The Dirt
Are you tired of driving your cars only on the road? Are you looking to get a little bit dirty? Or even a lot dirty? If you need a change from RC street racing, it is time to go off-road with the extreme off-road RC trucks. With a large variety of RC trucks to choose from, there is something for everybody, and every skill level.
Why an RC Truck?
If you have experience with RC cars, you might be thinking, why do I need an RC truck? What is wrong with my RC car? Well if you currently drive a streetcar, you do not know what you are missing. With a remote control truck, you can live out all your 4 x 4 dreams. Depending on the type of truck you get, you can take your truck in the dirt, in the mud, through snow and ice and even drive it through streams and puddles!
Get wet and dirty with extreme RC Trucks! The types of trucks that you can buy range quite dramatically. The most popular types of RC trucks are:
1) Monster trucks
2) Sport trucks
3) Suburban style
4) Hummers
5) Ford styles
You can get RC trucks in almost any make; however, the Hummer styles have become quite popular as well as the Ford styles. This is likely due to their reputation as being rough and tough trucks.
Can You Race RC Trucks?
RC trucks are not only for taking off-road. You can experience the speed and thrill of the race by racing your trucks as well. There is a whole segment of Radio Control trucks that are mean solely for racing. These trucks are generally built with a smaller body and are designed to be lightweight so that they can go faster. In order to race off-road trucks successfully you need the perfect combination of a fast truck, a rugged truck, and a light truck.
You can race off-road trucks on specially designed dirt racetracks with obstacles and jumps. Some tracks are especially designed with ramps, mud puddles and obstacles that you need to race through and avoid all together.
Other racetracks are built the same as RC car tracks. These courses are built for speed and are carried out on pavement or some other track like surface.
What Is The Best Type Of RC Off Road Truck?
There are many different types of off road truck, and the best kind depends on what you are looking for. The first thing that you need to determine is if you are looking for an electric or nitro vehicle. The electric trucks are typically less expensive; however, they are not usually as fast or as rugged as their gas-powered counterparts are.
A good quality off road 4x4 car is the Traxxas Stampede. This is an extra tough and powerful truck. The Stampede is known as the pit-bull of trucks because it is the meanest and toughest around. With its huge tires and high clearance, this truck can handle all types of terrain. Because of the quality, rugged construction, this truck is especially for first time RC truck owners. First time drivers can be especially tough on a truck as they learn how to manage their vehicles. You do not have to worry about breaking a Traxxas Stampede truck easily. The truck comes with a fully assembled chassis, a ball bearing equipped engine with a recoil starter. The truck comes ready to run, just paint whichever color you choose, add the decals and you are ready to drive.
The T-Maxx is another great 4 x 4 truck. This truck is built for racing with 60 percent more horsepower than you can find from other racing engines. This truck is nice and lightweight, which is the perfect formula for off-road truck racing. Every good racer knows that you need more power and less weight in order to achieve faster speeds and quick acceleration. With the T-Maxx truck, you achieve top speeds in excess of 40 miles per hour, and do wheelies on demand. This is the perfect truck for performance-minded drivers.
The Final Word
There are many different types of off-road extreme RC trucks. The type of truck that you choose will depend on what you are looking for, and what your budget allows. If you are looking at an electric truck, the prices will start around $100. The prices on these trucks increase as you add features, and nitro-fueled trucks are more expensive as well. No matter what type of off road RC you choose, you are sure to have fun feeling like a kid again, driving it through the mud, snow, and taking it off dirt jumps. Whether you are a professional or a hobbyist, the name of the game is to have fun.
© 2005 [http://www.rc-cars-now.com]
Kevin Brown is successful author and publisher of many informative websites including [http://www.rc-cars-now.com] . His websites offer tips and advice on a wide array of topics including rc trucks [http://www.rc-cars-now.com/rc-trucks.html], cars, planes and more.
GMC Trucks - 100 Years of Heavy-Duty Trucks
History of GMC Trucks
When it comes to trucks, GMC is known the world over for its production of a variety of trucks from service trucks and commercial vehicles to pickup trucks. It had its beginnings with a commercial hauling truck company created in 1902 by Max Grabowsky called the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company.
Seven years later, General Motors bought out Grabowsky's business because they wanted to form their own trucking company, which was called General Motors Truck Company. They added Reliance Motors to their inventory in 1911, and in 1912 GMC (General Motors Corporation) Trucks was born out of those two acquisitions.
GMC - The Early Years
GMC produced a mere 372 trucks out of the nationwide total of 22,000 trucks that first year, which pales in comparison to the millions of commercial vehicles they produce today. An interesting note though is that GMC was a forerunner in battery-powered electric model trucks and made nine different models ranging from one-half to six tons capacity.
In an effort to bring up their popularity, GMC Trucks put on a publicity stunt in 1916 featuring one of their truck models. William Warwick drove a loaded GMC 1-1/2-ton truck from Seattle to New York and back, making it the very first truck to cross the entire USA in less than 32 days.
GMC During World War I
The venture may have worked, as that same year the Army went with ¾ ton GMC trucks as part of their fleet of vehicles. In fact, WWI brought major breakthroughs for their business, as 90 percent of all its production was bought by the military from 1917 and 1919. GMC delivered 8,500 vehicles to the Army during those years.
GMC Trucks After World War I
The next few years brought more innovation in the GMC Truck production as pneumatic tires replaced solid rubber tires in 1920, and their K model trucks came out that year as well with a capacity between ¾ and five tons. The following year electric lights replaced what had been oil lamps as standard gear on all trucks as well and seven speed transmissions became the standard for heavyweight trucks.
By 1923, GMC trucks had capacities ranging up to 10 tons if you counted the trailer. Rear wheel brakes were starting to be used on some models by 1925.The company expanded by 1927 when they built a truck assembly plant in Pontiac, Michigan which was the biggest truck building plant in the world then at 26 acres of property.
That same year the company brought out their T model of trucks with a ½ ton panel express truck and a screen side express truck and "Cannon Ball" Baker drove a T model 40 GMC tank truck full of water from the Atlantic Ocean all the way from New York to San Francisco in under six days, which set a speed record for heavy-duty trucks.
GMC continued its innovative strategies when it started providing tandem driving rear axles for their heavyweight service trucks in 1930 and the following year it was a GMC T-95 model truck that pulled a refrigerated GMC trailer full of fresh produce from Los Angeles to New York, setting another record.
Between 1931 and 1940 GMC Trucks were producing more than 20 models of truck trailer chassis, 15 new models of different weight trucks, and it had added several models of heavy weight trucks to its lines.
GMC During World War II
The next war also seemed to benefit GMC as their production numbers continued to escalate with all of its trucks going to the war effort by 1942. GMC built 600,000 trucks during this time frame for the military. In fact, GMC trucks were presented the E Award for Excellence in 1944 because of its help in the war effort.
GMC After the War
The company was back to making trucks for the civilian market by then, but had some issues with a six-month long strike by its workers in 1946 that briefly slowed things down. Even so, by 1950 it proudly had 75 models of trucks going through its production lines.
In 1954 GMC Trucks offered power steering for the first time on some models and in 1956 tubeless tires were standard, and they were the first to put air suspension on front and rear axles on some of their heavy weight model trucks.
GMC Trucks continues to Grow
Between the 50s and the 60s GMC grew even larger and by 1968 they were considered the third largest truck producer in the world. Once again they prospered in the war effort and produced more than 9,000 trucks for the military in 1951. They were M-135 series that had the ability to ford deep water, thus being very useful for military operations.
The company again showed how GMC was first in implementing innovative features when in 1967 they produced trucks with energy absorbing steering columns, instrument panel pads and dual brake systems well before they were required by the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.
GMC Trucks Between 1970 and 2012
GMC continued its truck production over the next several decades, weathering many difficulties changes in production lines, increasing production costs, competition from foreign companies, problems with the fuel shortages in the middle 1970s and deregulation and recession issues in 1980s. The problems were so severe, that some trucking companies went out of business. The production plant in Pontiac was also torn down in late 1980s and the production was moved to Janesville, Wisconsin.
GMC's high points include placing third in the production of trucks in the U.S., being chosen as the official truck of the 1984 Olympics and in 1988 they stopped making heavyweight trucks, in 1990 electronic fuel injection became the norm, and by 1996 the name was shortened to just GMC, instead of GMC Trucks and they merged with Pontiac Motor Division to form Pontiac GMC Division of General Motors.
The following year all of its commercial vehicles production was moved to Flint, Michigan. Since then, GMC Trucks has continued to grow and produce award-winning trucks of all kinds with production and distribution all over the globe.
GMC Trucks will celebrate a milestone anniversary in 2012 - 100 years of truck manufacturing.
If you are interested in buying a GMC vehicle and would like to see photos, listings of trucks for sale, and articles on various other manufacturers, this site has all that and a little bit more GMC Trucks for sale.
For other vehicles, such as service, flatbeds, lube trucks and many others this site is a must see: Work Trucks.
International Trucks - A History of the Famous Internationals
History of International Trucks - Navistar International is a company that manufactures various commercial vehicles and diesel engines. It is also the company that now owns and produces the International Trucks brand of heavy duty trucks, which are known for being some of the best quality trucks in the industry.
In the Beginning of International Trucks History - At first, International made farming and agricultural machines and vehicles and the International brand of equipment was well known in the mid-1800s among farmers. Cyrus Hall McCormick made the very first horse drawn reaper in 1847 as the McCormick Havesting Machine Company. By 1902 he and his brother combined this company with some other farming and equipment companies and formed what was called the International Harvester company.
International's First Truck - Over the next several years the company continued to make tractors, trucks and other agricultural gear. In 1907 they produced what was called an "auto wagon," which was a motor truck with an air-cooled engine, high wheels and two cylinders, thus giving farmers a truck to use for moving around their gear and supplies. This truck is what first put International into the truck building business.
In actuality, the name International wasn't being used by itself until 1914, so these were International Harvester auto wagon vehicles. In fact, they were not even considered motor trucks until 1910 either, but were considered auto buggies. In their first year, the company made 73 of them, which was about seven percent of the entire trucking industry in the U.S. in 1907. The next year in 1908 that pittance skyrocketed to 725, which increased to nearly 2,500 in 1909.
International's Trucks joined the transportation industry By 1915, the company began to make even more new truck products, coming out with a low-wheeled vehicle that had more power and more speed than ever before. The following year, one of these little trucks was the first truck to climb Pike's Peak.
World War I and the World of Trucking
The Army needed lots of trucks during World War I and this caused the trucking business to double from 92,000 vehicles in 1916 to more than 227,000 in 1918. About 49,000 of these trucks ended up overseas for use during the war. After the war, the leftover trucks were sold off and shipping things by truck began to get more popular.
After World War I
By 1921 International Harvester made motor trucks in a plant in Springfield, Ohio, where it produced the first trucks known to have pneumatic tires and could go at a higher speed, making them work well on the newer roads that were becoming more prevalent by the 1920s. These and other trucks International made helped their production grow from only 7,183 trucks in 1920 to more than 39,000 in 1928 and more than 10,000 more the following year.
During the 1920s International was the brand of truck that first crossed the Sahara Desert when a British soldier, hunter and explorer named Sir Charles Markham, and Baron Bror Frederick von Blixen-Finecke used an International in that endeavor.
In 1923 International Trucks opened another plant up in Fort Wayne, Ind. and in 1925 the company had the first armored truck when it built them special to protect payrolls for the Brinks Express Company.
International Trucks: Built from the ground up International trucks were different, as they were built from the ground up to adapt them to the job, which was unlike most trucks in the era that were mass produced. The engineers who built them would go to find out the exact use for the truck and then built it accordingly. In 1938 they made the first trucks with a Metro body through a contract with Metropolitan Body Company in Connecticut, and by 1939 International was making engines for trucks at yet another plant in Indianapolis, Indiana.
During the 1930s and 40s, International produced their C, D and K line of trucks. These were sizes from a high ton pickup style of truck, up to huge six-wheeled trucks that were heavy weight and could perform off road. By then, the company was producing more than 86,000 trucks a year.
International Trucks Role in World War II - World War II brought a request by the federal government for International to build all wheel drive trucks for the military. So, between 1941 and 1943, the only trucks International made were military trucks. These included trucks such as half-tracks, armored, gun mounted trucks and more.
In 1944, the company formed their motor truck division to take care of the ever increasing amount of truck products and activities it was starting to handle and by 1947 International trucks was back into making trucks for the civilian market and had made several new innovative changes in the trucking world.
After the War
By 1946 International had opened a new plant in Emeryville, Calif. It made special made heavy weight trucks called a Western type of truck. They had the capacity to haul as much as 90,000 pounds over rugged mountainous terrain. They were very popular at the time. As before, these were specialized, not mass-produced and each model had a specific job to do.
International Trucks was famous for putting its trucks through tough tests to be sure that they could perform in rough areas and in harsh conditions and it continues to test its trucks for high performance today.
Trucks continued to get more popular and the call for even more and faster vehicles and International met the demand when it made a record 165,600 trucks in 1948 and even more the following year when its L model came out.
This L model was a total redesign for International and it spent a whopping $30 million to revamp the plants to produce it in Fort Wayne, Springfield and Indianapolis. The L trucks were four wheelers that ranged in gross vehicle weight from 4,200 to 30,000 pounds, as well as six wheelers weighing up to 50,000 pounds gross vehicle weight, and cab-forward trucks that could handle more than 14,000 pounds. It had one of the most totally complete lines of trucks in the world at this time.
In 1952, International again rocked the trucking industry with the development of factory-installed liquefied-petroleum-gas-powered engines or LPG. These engines gave truckers more efficiency and at a lower cost.
Over the next few years other improvements were made and diesel also became popular in engines. Trucks also continued to get more powerful and International put out their S line of lighter, as well as both medium and heavy weight trucks.
Throughout the 50s International added things like automatic transmission, power brakes, and power steering to the trucks it produced. By the end of the decade International was listed as having 498 different kinds of trucks. That year the company made a record $749 million in sales and broke that record in 1960 with $766 million in sales. This meant International had an incredible 45 percent of the trucking market.
Passenger trucks appeared
The 1960s brought a three person passenger truck to International called the Scout. It had a removable top, a pickup body, and an International Harvester engine with two or four wheel drive available.
A new name-Navistar International Corporation
During the 1980s International had issues with money, strikes and other problems and sold off everything except its trucking and engine division, which was renamed Navistar International Corporation, which is it called today. The new company had the first hybrid diesel/electric truck in 2007 and now had dealers all over the world.
Navistar is also one of the main suppliers of U.S. MRAP armored vehicles, as well as the maker of the biggest truck that can be bought in today's market-a giant tractor trailer weighing more than 127,000 pounds. They also make the MaxxForce brand of diesel engines, as well the Workhorse brand of chassis for vans and motor homes and the IC Bus brand school buses and commercial buses.
Navistar earns nearly 10 billion dollars a year in revenue and has dealers in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, Brazil and several other outlets in 90 countries.
If you have an interest in buying an International Trucks check out this site: International Trucks For Sale
Or check here if you are looking for another type of trucks for sale
What Would We Do Without Trucks?
DREAM TRUCKS
In this day and age, truck makers realise that safety comes first - this has become their first priority. Truck makers have gone the extra mile to make sure truck owners and their employees are safe when driving behind the wheel. Advances in technology mean that truck manufacturers have been able to create machines which are not only fast and reliable, but which can cope with the most hostile of terrains remaining ultimately safe to drive. This particular sector of the automotive industry is itself a well-oiled machine worth taking the time to find out a little more about.
The World Is Changing Fast
Whether you are a produce or hi-tech goods supplier, global raw material distributor, a manufacturer of any sort or a factory owner in Naples, you will almost without doubt be reliant on the trucking industry. Your company may find itself in need of tipper trucks, curtain side, flat bed trucks, graders, diggers, tippers or perhaps even just the tractor unit on its own. The upshot of it all is that without trucks almost all global enterprise would cease to exist. As companies continue to grow, developing world countries continue to develop and the people who live in this world continue to improve the surroundings in which they live - the demand for commercial trucking will not die down. In fact, the need for trucks has been growing consistently during the past decade. Even in the recession, the economy relied on the use of trucks, despite the demand for new trucks falling through the floor. That remained a constant requirement. The growth of new markets within developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America has given truck manufacturers a great opportunity to expand their own share.
Different Size Types of Trucks Available
There are many different types of trucks and not everyone may be aware of just how many variations of truck the manufacturers have to offer, especially small or medium size business owners who rely on the global logistics market every bit as much as the international construction and mining companies do. Manufacturers of trucks categorise them by the amount of weight they are capable of carrying. Trucks in the US are categorised into eight weight classes, ranging from the lightest at class one up the scale to class eight. For example, a Dodge Ram 3500 falls into a Class 2; a class 3 vehicle would be something like a Ford F-350. A GM C4500 falls under class 4, while the Ford F-550 is categorised class 5. Trucks which are bigger than, say, a GM8500 or a Ford F750, would most likely fall into a class eight.
The tractor unit of the truck is really where all the important stuff happens. This is the bit which not only houses the engine and gearbox, but is also the cab of the truck and it has to pull the trailer as well! The trailers are usually built for purpose and ordered separately from the tractor. There are many different tractors and each has a specific purpose much the same as for trailers. Trailer manufacture is just as big an industry sector as that of the truck tractor itself. To give you an idea of the differences between types of truck the categories are as follows:
Light Duty Trucks - These trucks provide a lower capacity of storage. The light duty trucks are utility provider carriers; they transport many of the products we use in our homes on a daily basis. They also deliver the products we need to build the homes we live in. If these trucks did not exist, we would not have many of the everyday items available to us which we so take for granted!
Main Models- These trucks are service trucks, dump trucks, flatbed trucks and the pickup trucks. These medium size model trucks are usually used for the lighter capacities of carrying and quickest way of transporting. Medium duty trucks have better carrying capacities than light trucks, and are used by most large companies for transporting goods between branches or depots. Some types of commercial trucks are: medium duty box trucks, bucket trucks, reefer trucks and rollback trucks. These are the most frequently used commercial trucks, which all types of companies and businesses use.
Large commercial trucks are also sometimes called articulated trucks, or Artics for short. The trailer of these trucks is able to swivel on a hook, hinge or tow-bar, giving them articulation by design and thus name. These are the really big trucks, which get the big jobs done. Mac trucks are what we knew them as while I was growing up. This is a brand name, however, and the same as calling a vacuum cleaner a Hoover. Both the construction and transportation industries rely heavily on the use of articulated, heavy-duty dump trucks and graders. They have a justified reputation for immense power and the performance to match, moving industrial sized mounds of earth or transporting thousands of tons of heavy machinery or raw materials such as iron and steel from suppliers to construction sites around the world.
There are a handful of companies which come to mind immediately - namely Mack, JCB and Caterpillar - when thinking of any need, application or location possible for a truck. Mack have a reputation for building reliable construction trucks, reliable motorway and interstate transporters, and the most hardy of refuse trucks in the US. Mack trucks always deliver! Both Caterpillar and JCB build a huge range of ultra reliable articulated dump trucks and graders which operate under the harshest conditions imaginable from building schools to preparing runways in the harsh African sun, to operating in the world's biggest diamond mines and coal mines in Russia or the world famous opal mines of the Australian outback. These amazing giants of the automotive world often operate night and day, thanklessly performing their important function time after time as quickly and safely as possible. The tyres alone on these monster trucks often need to be made to order and can cost around twenty thousand pounds each. They need to be flown to some of the most inhospitable places on earth at a moment's notice as down time on these machines costs corporations hundreds of thousands a day when they are taken out of operation. Time really does equate to money in this game!
Heavy-duty cab chassis trucks, sleeper trucks and dump trucks are among the main types of these. Many land development companies use these types of trucks; they are also popular with related industries such as construction.
Commercial trucks have various uses:
1. Transport of small and medium sized goods.
2. Transportation of fuels, liquids and gases in tankers.
3. Contributing in the development of residential construction.
4. Maintaining a safe community by playing their part in road construction.
5. Waste elimination.
6. Providing services for other companies or residential.
There is more to add to the list. The list of types of operation or business in which commercial vehicles play a part is endless; trucks play an enormous part in all of our business and personal lives.
Some of the best names in the world of big trucks are Peterbilt, Mack, Kenworth, DAF, Renault, Mercedes, Freightliner trucks, Feterl Manufacturing Corporation. Some of the best looking and high functioning trucks on the market are supplied by these companies. Unique among transport vehicles and truly in a class of their own, they exhibit flair, strength and speed all in one hit. New commercial trucks on the market by these manufacturers never fail to create a buzz in the global business world.
Trucks of all sizes and shapes are being advertised and sold primarily by these big-name commercial truck makers. A massive percentage of all commercial truck supplies to both UK and US markets are made by these major companies. Over the years, they have made huge efforts to make their trucks well known worldwide, with a very successful migration to the Asian, African and South American markets. It can be said that commercial trucks have changed, and are still changing, the world as we know it.
CEO and company managers worldwide strive to help improve our societies' infrastructure by quickly moving everyday goods and perishable resources between company depots, from cities to rural areas as well as between countries, as is the case in Europe. Our economies can only move forward with the help of big trucks. It is often neither cost effective nor logistically possible due to rail infrastructure to haul large amounts of freight across Europe and Britain.
Commercial trucks are easy to buy through expert distribution services worldwide made available by the big names in the trucking world. Franchised dealerships will often have heavy regulation from the manufacturer so as to ensure their desired level of service and supply of equipment and parts. Commercial truck providers are helping to improve communities and the hard working people who live in them. At the end of the day, commercial trucks bring results, and results go on to create jobs and more results.
A stable financial future for us and for generations to come depends on continued economic growth. The global recession has crippled truck sales across the UK, Europe and the US. Smaller dealerships acting as representatives on behalf of big manufacturers have experienced crippling blows to order books and unprecedented returns of new trucks. The reason is not as complicated as governments may like us to think either; it's down to simple economics - high interest rates on truck loans for small businesses have continued to be offered to struggling companies even after reserve banks lowered their lending fees and the small business, still left at the mercy of the big banks, have simply had to return the trucks or risk going broke.
While some small businesses may no longer be able to consider purchasing a new truck, the flip side of the coin is that the market for used commercial vehicles in some sectors could actually see positive growth. Commercial vehicles play a part in so many types of operation. Whether you are a small enterprise starting out with a couple of Ford Transit Vans, perhaps a larger company needing to downsize to smaller vans, or maybe you are considering whether to buy a minibus to move workers between sites - the used commercial vehicle industry is yet another important facet of the truck industry as a whole.
The future of the trucking industry around the world is still bright. Trucks perform a critical job; keeping our economy moving by delivering building materials, consumer goods such as TVs and hi-fi equipment to super stores and perishable goods from our farms to the supermarket shelves. Most truck drivers spend a lot of time away from home; spare a thought for the driver who may be many miles from home and family next time you see a big truck on the road.
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Sunday, May 13, 2012
The Cass Scenic Railroad
Morning mist, like a transparent sheath, rose from the green-carpeted Cheat Mountain in West Virginia's Monongahela National Forest on that Memorial Day weekend, but the hot sun quickly intercepted it during its gentle ascent, leaving a flawlessly blue sky.
Like a pocket of history, somehow frozen in time, the town of Cass, accessed via curving, mountain-hugging roads and a short, Greenbrier River-traversing bridge, sported its railroad depot, historic buildings, and dual tracks, all cradled by a valley in Back Allegheny Mountain. The tracks themselves, stretching toward and disappearing into a dense forest, were the very reason for the town and its railroad and also the reason why neither disappeared into history.
Densely covered with virgin forests during the late-19th century, West Virginia ubiquitously sprouted oak, hickory, pine, walnut, and chestnut at its lower elevations and hemlock, spruce, maple, and birch at its higher ones, providing rich lumber resources, with its eight- to nine-foot diameter trees, for the houses, stores, churches, and schools demanded by the state's increasing population.
Logging, once dependent upon rivers to power sawmills, evolved into a significant industry with the concurrent development of the steam engine and the circular saw, a combination which permitted location anywhere the operation required it, independent of external water power.
Trees were traditionally felled, cut into manageably sized logs, propelled down slopes by means of wooden skids to streams, and transported to mills on log rafts.
Because of the inherent imprecision and danger of the manual skidding method, the Lidgerwood Company of New York designed the first steam-powered skidder, which constituted another logging industry advancement. First used in West Virginia in 1904, the device, featuring a mile of 1 7/8-inch thick cable which extended up to 2,600 feet, was either mounted directly on the ground or atop a rail-provisioned flat car, gripping the log and transferring it from forest to stream in a secure, controlled manner. It significantly increased the capability of the horse-drawn method it often replaced.
Water-born logging rafts, as equally imprecise because of rock, boulder, branch, and rapids obstructions during the summer and ice in the winter, were eventually replaced with steam-operated loaders and logging railroads.
Large band saws, substituting for the earlier, circular device, converted timber into lumber more rapidly, precisely, and efficiently, eliminating needless waste, and had an average daily capability of 125,000 board-feet.
By the late-19th century, West Virginia had become one of the country's largest lumber producers, more than one hundred railroads transporting raw timber to mills for cutting and processing before being shipped for sale as a finished product. Peaking in 1909, the industry cut some 1,473 million board feet of lumber per year.
One of the most major logging operations had been the West Virginia Spruce Lumber Company. Founded in 1899 when John G. Luke acquired more than 67,000 acres of red spruce in West Virginia, it was a subsidiary of the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company located in Covington, Virginia.
The Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, foreseeing a need for freight and lumber transportation, hastened its own plans to extend its track into northern Pocahontas County, incorporating a subsidiary designated the "Greenbrier Railway Company" in 1897 and commencing roadbed and track construction two years later. The line reached the area that December. Threshold to virgin forests, it was uniquely positioned to carry timber to the Covington sawmill and also to connect with the Coal and Iron Railway, which itself was later amalgamated into the Western Maryland Railway.
Although it provided a vital link, it did not penetrate the mountain-clinging forests themselves, nor did it possess the proper locomotive equipment to do so. Logging railroad track, by necessity, exhibited several unique characteristics. Mountain forests usually dictated both sharp curves, which could equal 35 degrees, and steep grades, which required switchbacks to surmount, while track needed to be portable, moved after each area was cut and depleted. Resultantly, it was usually built up of short, skinned logs directly laid on the bare earth, without the benefit of prepared roadbeds, and the rails themselves were then spiked to them. Rail weight, ranging between 50 and 75 pounds per yard, was more than sufficient.
Although these temporary, impromptu tracks fulfilled the immediate need before being moved to the next location, they were ill-suited to conventional, rod-type locomotives with their rigid frames and fixed driving axles. Often falling victim to imperfections, they slipped and frequently derailed. What was needed was an engine with numerous, small drive wheels, ideally ranging between eight and 16, which could deliver low-speed traction, continuous contact, positive power, and effective braking, yet exhibit considerable flexibility.
Ephraim Shay, a Michigan logger who was well acquainted with such obstacles, designed the first articulated locomotive for logging purposes in 1874. Its driving force was subdivided into the cylinders-connecting rods and the driving wheels mounted on pivoting trucks, the side-mounted cylinders themselves counterbalanced by an offset boiler, while the tender truck's own driving axles both contributed to this force and added to the locomotive's adhesion weight. The geared steam engine, replacing the conventional locomotive's rod-driving propulsion system, was equally easy to maintain and repair with its entirely exposed parts.
The first such Shay, patented and constructed by the Lima Machine Works of Lima, Ohio, in 1880, featured slide vales, a vertical boiler, and eight drivers.
Later, progressively larger examples sported three right-side mounted vertical cylinders counterbalanced by a left side boiler, which itself provided clearance for the cylinders, and a small water tender-connected coal bunker located immediately behind the cab. Since the engine was seldom far from either a coal or water supply, its relatively small capacity proved sufficient.
Cylinder pistons, by means of bevel gears, enabled each truck to independently negotiate the rail's imperfections and their small, 36-inch drive wheels provided the needed adhesion and traction. Yet, since all wheels were interconnected either by line shafts or axles, single-wheel slippages were impossible.
The Shay locomotive, enjoying a 2,771-production run between 1880 and 1945, proved to be the most ideally-suited and numerically most popular powerplant for logging operations, whether specifically in West Virginia, where more than 400 were employed, or elsewhere. It also had limited application for steep-grade, heavy-load lines and industrial switching.
The West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company's first locomotive was a two-truck, 42-ton Shay.
The first pulpwood shipment to the Covington, Virginia, paper mill, hauled by the Greenbrier Railway Company, was made on January 28, 1901, but what was needed for more immediate processing and independent operation was a strategically located sawmill. This became operational the following year.
In order to support the massive workforce required for a rapidly expanding logging enterprise, a company town, designated "Cass" after West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company Vice President Joseph P. Cass, arose from a small farming community and wagon road river crossing previously called "Leatherbark Ford."
Carefully planned and revolving round the sawmill itself, the incorporated town, with an official major and council, was located on one side of the Greenbrier River and boasted of a 2,000-strong population, sustained by houses, schools, stores, offices, churches, and civic and social organizations. It quickly blossomed into one of West Virginia's largest boom towns.
Its three-story Pocahontas Supply Company store, constructed in 1902 and partially rebuilt 16 years later after fire had consumed its upper floor, sold everything from food to appliances to furniture and was the nucleus of the town. It had also served as the site of the US Post Office and the lumber company's offices.
The smaller shop next to it housed Nethkin's Meat Market.
Residents used wooden boardwalks to negotiate the area by foot.
Contrasted with the brothels and hotels located on the town's east side, which was alternatively dubbed "East Cass" or "Dirty Street," the dual-structure comprising the Cass Hotel was frequented by businessmen, workers in good standing, and respected visitors.
The elite, in general, lived in the town's Big Bug Hill section.
The mayor's office, replacing a temporarily employed boxcar for incarcerations, ironically housed the more permanent jail on its first floor and the mayoral headquarters on its second.
Between 1901 and 1920, the railroad had constituted Cass's only access.
Propelled by its small Shay locomotive, the West Virginia Spruce Lumber Company commenced logging railroad operations in January of 1901, pulling red spruce-piled flat cars over an initial eight miles of off-line track in order to supply the Covington paper mill with pulpwood until Cass's own mill had been completed the following year. By 1908, the operation had sustained dramatic growth, with logging trains running both day and night, supported by 200 draft horses and 1,000 men and supplying the mill with hemlock and spruce bark. Forty-four daily cars hauled raw material and finished products from Cass.
After subsidiary West Virginia Spruce Lumber Company had been acquired by and amalgamated into parent Pulp and Paper, and the operation had entered its second life phase, the railroad had been rechartered as the Greenbrier, Cheat, and Elk, opening a main line into the Elk River Watershed in order to log a 2,000-foot-long by 100-foot-deep area designated the "Big Cut," then the largest and most costly engineering project ever undertaken by an eastern logging company. Comprised of 82 miles of main and 40 additional miles of spur line track at its peak, it enjoyed 21 years of common-carrier operations.
A typical logging operation entailed cutting the designated trees, skidding them down the slope to the tracks, and loading them, as log limbs, on to the flatbed cars, cradled between vertical, side-forming and -mounted wooden stakes, which formed pockets. After being transported to the mill, they were unloaded in to the mill pond, at which time pike-provisioned men channeled them on to jack slips-inclined, cleated, conveyor belt-like chains-for travel into the actual mill's sawing room. The finished product, assuming the form of cut board, was then dried and reloaded on to standard-gauge trains pulled by traditional rod locomotives for distribution to the company or lumber yard which had ordered them.
The mill, equipped with 11 miles of steam pipes, cut more than 125,000 board feet of lumber per shift and dried 360,000 per run, there having been two 11-hour shifts per day, scheduled six days per week, resulting in 1.5 million board feet per week and 35 million per year.
The West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company, having grown into one of West Virginia's largest logging enterprises, was continually subjected to expansion, as evidenced by its statistics: the Greenbrier, Cheat, and Elk Railroad had operated over 66 miles of track by 1917 and over 101 miles four years later, when the workforce had exceeded 1,500.
But, by the time World War II had raged, the forests surrounding Cass had been depleted, despite still-prevalent hardwood and second-growth trees below Bald Knob. The West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company, unable to justify the economic viability of extending its track into the timber span, sold the operation to F. Edwin Mower, head of the Charleston-based Mower Lumber Company. Demand for southern yellow pine, traditionally used for paper production, had already precipitated a decline and 68,000 acres had been sold to the US Forest Service in 1936. The remainder had been acquired by Mower. The West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company thus entered the third phase of its life, albeit under a new name.
Laying 12 miles of short branch track off the Cabin Fork Line to Bald Knob, the Mower Lumber Company was able to continue harnessing the precious wood resource. But with only 65,000 acres remaining by 1960, a handful of still-unharvested hardwood patches, and deteriorating rolling stock and machinery, it only operated three weekly trains pulled by an equal number of Shay locomotives, and finally ceased operations on June 30 of that year. Victim, like most of the other logging railroad enterprises to forest depletion and new, automated mill processing methods, it retreated into the history books, leaving less than half-a-dozen concerns in West Virginia. Its track, mills, machinery, engines, and cars almost went with it.
The Midwest Raleigh Steel Corporation, to which the operation's components had been sold, began dismantling its track, with the intention of having it completely removed before the onset of winter, while the locomotives, rolling stock, and logging equipment would be junked. Walworth Farms, a landholding company, acquired its wooded property.
Russel C. Baum, a Pennsylvania rail fan who coincidentally spent a three-day vacation in Marlinton, West Virginia, during this time, witnessed the painstaking dismemberment process, but immediately foresaw the historical and tourist value of the railroad.
Commencing a campaign to save it and pleading his case in Charleston's Capitol Building, he was able to obtain a temporary injunction which dictated suspension of the dismantling process, and a committee, formed for the purpose of investigating its tourism potential, ultimately recommended that the state acquire its roadbed, rolling stock, and 40 acres on Back Allegheny Mountain for $150,000. It would then be operated by the Department of Natural Resources. On June 15, 1963, the operation entered its fourth life phase when the Cass Scenic Railroad was born.
Pulled by Shay locomotive #4, the first passenger-carrying excursion train left Cass and the railroad carried 23,106 during its first year of operations. That number has increased every year since. Restoring the line to fully operational status, it opened the second portion, to Bald Knob, on May 25, 1968, to the excursion train, its tracks having now carried both logs and passengers.
On the same date, Cass Scenic Railroad State Park, which includes almost 100 buildings in the town itself, was added to the National Register of Historic Places, and today, as a unit of the West Virginia Park System, is the site of the nation's longest-running tourist railway, the geared steam locomotive, the mill town, the locomotive repair shop, the Cass Company store, the Last Run Restaurant, and the Shay Railroad Shop.
The Cass Mill, having been owned by the West Virginia Spruce Lumber Company between 1902 and 1910, the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company between 1910 and 1942, and the Mower Lumber Company between 1942 and 1960, had been comprised of the drying kilns, the boiler house, the powerhouse, the sawmill itself, the millpond, and the storage area for finished lumber, all located between the tracks and the Greenbrier River. Reconstruction occurred from 1922 to 1923 because of fire, the reason for its final demise during the 1980s.
II
Belching thick, black smoke from its stack and clanging its bell, Shay locomotive #6 pulled its still-empty cars to the Cass depot on the left of the two main tracks 30 minutes before its 1100 departure to Bald Knob on that late-May morning, a four-and-a-half hour, 22-mile round trip journey.
The cars themselves consisted of six wooden, converted logging cars with paneless windows, a roof, and side-facing bench seats, painted green with red window trim, and a single wooden, enclosed coach with forward- and aft-facing, booth-like seats, designated "Leatherbark Creek."
The depot next to which they stood, constructed here in 1901 to serve the just-completed Greenbrier Division of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, was modified in 1923 to accommodate an increasing volume of freight and passengers, but the present wooden, white-painted structure was rebuilt in 1979, four years after fire had claimed the original one.
The 162-ton, Class C-150 Shay locomotive #6, originally constructed for the Western Maryland Railway and the largest of its type, had been shipped to Elkins, West Virginia, on May 14, 1945 for service on the nine-percent graded Chaffee Branch. The three-truck engine, with 48-inch drivers, a 17-inch bore, and an 18-inch stroke, was then donated to the Baltimore and Ohio Museum, in Baltimore, Maryland, after four years, and was subsequently exchanged for a Cass Scenic Railroad Porter 0-4-0 after another 26. Other locomotives in its inventory include the 93-ton Shay #2, the 80-ton Shay #4, the 90-ton Shay #5, and the 103-ton Shay #11. A 70-ton Shay #9 and 100-ton Heisler #6, although not currently operational, round out the fleet.
Emitting an ear-shattering whistle and releasing a volcanic eruption of billowing, blinding black smoke, the Shay #6, assuming a pusher-configuration, bit into the rails and prodded its cars into abrupt motion, steam pressure pulsing its pistons which then rotated its crankshaft, and this, in turn, rotated the all-driver wheels through reduction gear. Plying the tracks acquired by the state park in 1978 after the Chesapeake and Ohio's Greenbrier Division had operated its last freight service on them, the train moved past the water tank, which had been shared with the C&O, but is presently a replica which had been installed in 2005. It also marked the spot, at the junction switch, where the logging railroad actually began.
The deadline, cradling several locomotives, was the service area for coaling, sanding, and repairing.
Crossing Back Mountain Road, the train trundled near the original, 1901 track, which had been on a cribbing through the wet bottomland of Leatherbark Creek, and the bridges which had traversed it had been little more than wood stringers until they had been replaced by steel structures in 1959. West Virginia's highest stream, the creek itself flowed from a point below Bald Knob.
Rumbling and vibrating with every track joint traverse, the chain of cars commenced a four-percent graded ascent through a cool, almost sun-obstructing forest of tall spruce, hemlock, white pine, and red spruce trees, the raw timber which constituted the very reason for the railroad's creation. Most had now been third-cut vegetation, with the patches receiving the most sunlight having been the first to regrow.
In order to avoid an excessive amount of circumventing track and gain the maximum amount of elevation in the minimum amount of distance, the logging railroad installed two switchbacks, the lower of which was reached at mile 2.3. Ceasing motion beyond the actual v-configured rails before releasing a soot-reeking geyser from its stack and assaulting the forest's solitude with a billowing stream of coal cinders, the Shay locomotive, puffing and panting, lurched its cars in a pulling mode, filling its lungs with every chugging breath as the crankshaft provided the vital connection between the vertical pistons and the rotating wheels. Settling into a rhythmic, albeit explosive, forest-echoing chug, the mass re-established motion.
Initiating a 22-degree curve on a 3.65-percent grade, the Bald Knob run arced into the 158-degree circle characterizing Gum Curve at mile 2.6. The sun-illuminated clearing, comprised of rolling, velvet-green pastures, revealed the equally green waves of the highlands off the left side.
At mile 3.1, the train's seven cars, bombarded with lung-choking steam and smoke, moved past Limestone Cut, the track's roadbed having been created after limestone rock itself had been hand-cut with the aid of picks, shovels, black powder, and horse-drawn pans.
Once again immersed in dense, dark forest, the railroad maneuvered through an arrest-reinitiated motion sequence as it spewed black plumes to the towering treetops and negotiated the upper switchback, the locomotive assuming its pusher-configuration.
Mountains, varying in color with distance, seemed to roll and crest, like ocean waves, dividing the line between Virginia and West Virginia. Those closest to the train appeared green while those furthest from it appeared dark-blue to gray.
Commencing a 0.2-mile, s-curve at a 7.1-percent grade, the train crossed the access road to Whittaker and surmounted a plateau, a sanctuary-exuding meadow in the middle of a steep forest flanked on either side by densely treed mountains. Having climbed from 2,452 feet at Cass to a current 3,250 at Whittaker Station, the Shay engine breathed a sigh and suspended its journey at 1145.
Aside from the views of Cheat Mountain and the snackbar facilities, the station itself afforded the opportunity to experience the Mountain State Railroad and Logging Association's reconstructed logger's camp.
Originally the site of a Hungarian railroad laborer's camp during the turn-of-the-century, the present reconstruction, depicting a later set-up from about 1946, featured three tracks on which railroad cars, equipment, and miners shanties were positioned, the latter built using measurements from actual structures near Bald Knob.
Although such camps were usually isolated, spartan, and offered little more than a suspension between work shifts to facilitate washing, eating, and sleeping until the person could return to the main logging town, such as Cass, they were an integral part of West Virginia railroad logging from the late-1800s to 1960.
Because the activity had constituted the predominant growth industry during this period, and because timber companies needed significant numbers of immigrant workers to meet their operational requirements, they usually contracted large city-located labor agents to screen and hire them. Typically, they encompassed people from Italy, Sweden, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Russia, and Poland. The camps, crude and crowded, employed kerosene lamps for light and coal or wood for heat. Food, in copious quantities, was vital to worker productivity.
The Whittaker camp's four-wheel logging caboose, constructed by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1883, was usually attached at the end of logging trains and accommodated by brakemen and management-level personnel so that they could inspect remote sites. Later employed in Swandale, Clay County, it was finally acquired by the Cass Scenic Railroad.
The camp's several shanties, which utilized less-than-premium lumber and were transported from area to area after it had been depleted of trees, exemplified the structure's size and internal facilities relative to position importance. The wood shanty was tiny. The filer's shanty contained a larger window to provide maximum light for saw sharpening. And the desk-provisioned surveyor/cruiser shanty was housed by the men who determined which timber should be cut and how it should be removed from the mountain.
The kitchen and dining car, sporting a long,, bench-lined, internal table for eating, and the abundant portions served on it, were tantamount to sustaining logging operations, since the human bodies were the primary "machines" involved in the operational chain, over and above the mechanical ones, and therefore had to be properly "fueled." There had been little else to which loggers would look forward during their nocturnal downtimes.
Sleeping in spartan surroundings, as evidenced by the lobby/bunk car, was the standard until the worker could return to home and family in the company town. A stove provided warmth and a method by which wet clothes could be dried throughout the night.
The diesel-powered log loader, usually riding car-fastened rails and thus capable of both independent and collective movement with the remainder of the train, facilitated log transfer from ground to rolling stock. The camp's example was capable of handling tree-length specimens.
The steam-driven Lidgerwood log skidder, operated by a three-man crew and built by the Meadow River Lumber Company in 1944, had been employed for some two decades, and facilitated log delivery from the cutting source to the actual railroad by means of an aerial cable.
Snoozing during its 15-minute interlude, the black Shay locomotive exhaled white streams of breath through its vertical piston nostrils, the high-pressure steam discharged from the cylinders itself eradicating its piston chambers of condensation. The restful state, however, was soon shattered by its subsequently released, atmosphere-piercing whistle, its sound waves reverberating off of the surrounding slopes and beckoning the passengers back to the cars for the continuing journey.
Re-boring its way through the deep, dense wood forest, whose foliage slowly moved by like a green mosaic within an arm's length of the windowless coaches, the train trundled over the culvert at Whittaker Run, the sharper curve of the old grade visible on the track's low side.
Clinging to Leatherbark Gorge, the rails briefly threaded their way through Austin Meadows, on whose slope farm fields once grew, and thence over Gobbler's Knob.
A skidder set, located on a 225-foot siding on the uphill side of the train at mile 5.4, had occupied the site between 1940 and 1941, its 3,000-foot cable transferring logs at a 500-foot height over the creek from the far mountainside.
Climbing a 5.4- to six-percent grade at mile 6.0, the string of cars passed an overlook whose view took in Leatherbark Creek Valley, located below the lower switchback and from which smoke, created by the 1200 Whittaker train, now rose. At the present elevation, spruce trees had become ubiquitous.
The logging spur leading to Camp 5, which had been hollowed in 1911, moved off the side at mile 6.2.
The tracks, forking a half-mile further into the journey, led to Old Spruce on the left and Bald Knob on the right, the former following the main line which connected with tracks destined for the Cheat and Elk River drainages at the abandoned mill town of Spruce. Located at a 3,940-foot elevation on the Shavers Fork of the Cheat River, the bark-peeling pulpwood mill- and railroad shop-equipped town was considered the "highest and coldest...in the east."
Arcing to the right of the two, the train entered the logging spur, and the last to have been laid by the Mower Lumber Company, so that it could access the highest-elevation timber. It served as the threshold to Bald Knob.
Operations, ceasing in 1960, never permitted use of the railroad grade located on the high side and destined for the head of Leatherbark Creek.
Arresting its travel on the eight-percent graded track at the Oats Creek water tank, the engine was intravenously-fed 4,000 gallons of the life-providing liquid by means of a steam-driven siphon and portable hose extending from an old mill boiler which continually collected creek water run-off. The 6,000-gallon tank, located directly over the engine's driver wheels, ensured both increased traction and greater rail adhesion.
Somehow emulating a polluting factory, the Shay locomotive once again released a black, vertical plume as it propelled the train over the seven-percent grade of Johnson Run, at mile 8.2, past the Snowshoe ski resort overlook, now entrenched in third-cut hemlock, ash, white pine, and red spruce tree sentinels.
The wye, at mile 9.1, had led to a one-mile-long spur off to the left which had been equipped with five skidder sets and a camp train between 1950 and 1951, but had since been reduced to a fraction of this length.
Clanking, lurching, swaying, and screaming with protests at every turn, and releasing its own periodic explosion of steam, the train moved round the Big Run watershed, at a 1.5-percent downgrade, the track having been laid from Shavers Fork in 1910 when skidding had still been accomplished by means of horse power.
Moving through the ten-mile marker, it traversed the logging road crossing, initiating its final, mile-long approach to the mountain's summit on a nine-percent grade. A small clearing indicated imminent arrival.
Passing the left-arcing logging railroad grade, the train ceased motion for a final time at mile 11.0 in the cooler, more rarefied air at 4,750-foot Bald Knob, the highest point reached east of the Rocky Mountains by a non-cog railroad and the third-highest in the state of West Virginia.
The billous black, 162-ton Shay locomotive, having voraciously consumed mini-mountains of coal and unquenchably gulped water by the thousand gallons, instantaneously ceased its persistent chug, belch, hiss, screech, clang, and shrill at 1320, leaving silence-and the breathtaking view of the gentle, dark green, blue, and gray, wave-resembling ridges rolling into one another almost 5,000 feet above the surface from the eastern edge of the Allegheny Highland, as viewed from the scenic overlook platform.
Eleven miles ahead lay the mountains marking the Virginia border, but only a few yards behind, cradled by the terminating track, was the Shay #6 locomotive, its coal tender, and its seven vacant cars. Its forest- and five sense-assaulting technology, although now crude and primitive, had been instrumental in West Virginia logging railroad history, once removing the raw, vitally-needed timber to build the country's towns and sustain their people, but today returned them to the mountain forest where they could witness its feats.
Enticed back to the train 40 minutes later for the 11-mile journey back to Cass, the passengers, numbering in the hundreds, owed it a silent salute.
A graduate of Long Island University-C.W. Post Campus with a summa-cum-laude BA Degree in Comparative Languages and Journalism, I have subsequently earned the Continuing Community Education Teaching Certificate from the Nassau Association for Continuing Community Education (NACCE) at Molloy College, the Travel Career Development Certificate from the Institute of Certified Travel Agents (ICTA) at LIU, and the AAS Degree in Aerospace Technology at the State University of New York - College of Technology at Farmingdale. Having amassed almost three decades in the airline industry, I managed the New York-JFK and Washington-Dulles stations at Austrian Airlines, created the North American Station Training Program, served as an Aviation Advisor to Farmingdale State University of New York, and devised and taught the Airline Management Certificate Program at the Long Island Educational Opportunity Center.
A freelance author, I have written some 70 books of the short story, novel, nonfiction, essay, poetry, article, log, curriculum, training manual, and textbook genre in English, German, and Spanish, having principally focused on aviation and travel, and I have been published in book, magazine, newsletter, and electronic Web site form. I am a writer for Cole Palen's Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome in New York. I have made some 350 lifetime trips by air, sea, rail, and road.